Farr Olivia M., Li Chiang-shan R., Mantzoros Christos S., Central nervous system regulation of eating: insights from human brain imaging, Metabolism (2016), doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2016.02.00 From the conclusion: “FMRI combined with neurocognitive testing and food cue paradigms in humans hold great promise in unraveling how the homeostatic, reward, cognitive and affective systems interact to control appetite and eating. PET and SPECT imaging are instrumental to revealing the molecular determinants of these neural processes. Together, these imaging tools are critical to understanding how the brain is altered in obesity including potential subtypes of obesity (e.g. emotional eaters) and to developing new pharmacological regimens to effectively treat obesity. farr2016 .pdf
A Systematic Review of the Application And Correlates of YFAS-Diagnosed ‘Food Addiction’ in Humans: Are Eating-Related ‘Addictions’ a Cause for Concern or Empty Concepts?
Long, C. G., Blundell, J. E., & Finlayson, G. (2015). A Systematic Review of the Application And Correlates of YFAS-Diagnosed ‘Food Addiction’ in Humans: Are Eating-Related ‘Addictions’ a Cause for Concern or Empty Concepts?. Obesity facts, 8(6), 386–401. https://doi.org/10.1159/000442403 The proposition of so-called ‘food addiction’ (FA) in the scientific literature has stimulated a recent surge in research and debate. The concept of FA is controversial, and opinion is divided. Many of the findings depend upon the use of a single instrument called the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS). This review systematically examined FA, as defined by the YFAS, reported in 40 experimental human studies published in or after 2009. The results indicated that much of the literature makes the supposition that food addiction is an accepted neurobiological disease, consistent with substance use disorders; an interpretation based on very limited data. This raises the question as to whether those individuals who meet the YFAS criteria for diagnosis are truly ‘addicted’ to food or if they experience significant impairment to their psychological wellbeing and quality of life as would be expected in clinically recognised addictive disorders. At the present time, little research has investigated the extent to which a psychometric self-assessment of FA symptomatology can elucidate a harmful relationship with target foods in the diet. A positive YFAS diagnosis is usually positively associated with BMI and strongly linked with the presence of binge eating, but certain exceptions within the literature were revealed. Further clarification is required as to whether so-called FA is sufficiently different to existing conditions and traits to warrant classification as a distinctive disease phenotype rather than an expression of strong habits and preferences. 442403.pdf
Why do liver transplant patients so often become obese? The addiction transfer hypothesis.
Brunault P, Salamé E, Jaafari N, Courtois R, Réveillère C, Silvain C, Benyamina A, Blecha L, Belin D, Ballon N. Why do liver transplant patients so often become obese? The addiction transfer hypothesis. Med Hypotheses. 2015 Jul;85(1):68-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2015.03.026 Epub 2015 Apr 3. PMID: 25896392 Such an integrative assessment would enable the early recognition of food addiction and alcohol addiction and their risk factors brunault2015 .pdf
The role of maternal obesity in the risk of neuropsychiatric disorders
Rivera HM, Christiansen KJ, Sullivan EL. The role of maternal obesity in the risk of neuropsychiatric disorders. Front Neurosci. 2015 Jun 18;9:194. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00194 eCollection 2015. PMID: 26150767 Recent evidence indicates that perinatal exposure to maternal obesity, metabolic disease, including diabetes and hypertension, and unhealthy maternal diet has a long-term impact on offspring behavior and physiology. During the past three decades, the prevalence of both obesity and neuropsychiatric disorders has rapidly increased. Epidemiologic studies provide evidence that maternal obesity and metabolic complications increase the risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorders, anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, eating disorders (food addiction, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa), and impairments in cognition in offspring. Animal models of maternal high-fat diet (HFD) induced obesity also document persistent changes in offspring behavior and impairments in critical neural circuitry. Animals exposed to maternal obesity and HFD consumption display hyperactivity, impairments in social behavior, increased anxiety-like and depressive-like behaviors, substance addiction, food addiction, and diminished cognition. During development, these offspring are exposed to elevated levels of nutrients (fatty acids, glucose), hormones (leptin, insulin), and inflammatory factors (C-reactive protein, interleukin, and tumor necrosis factor). Such factors appear to permanently change neuroendocrine regulation and brain development in offspring. In addition, inflammation of the offspring brain during gestation impairs the development of neural pathways critical in the regulation of behavior, such as serotoninergic, dopaminergic, and melanocortinergic systems. Dysregulation of these circuits increases the risk of mental health disorders. Given the high rates of obesity in most developed nations, it is critical that the mechanisms by which maternal obesity programs offspring behavior are thoroughly characterized. Such knowledge will be critical in the development of preventative strategies and therapeutic interventions. fnins-09-00194 .pdf
Why are we consuming so much sugar despite knowing too much can harm us?
Avena, N. M., Potenza, M. N., & Gold, M. S. (2015). Why are we consuming so much sugar despite knowing too much can harm us? JAMA internal medicine, 175(1), 145—146. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.6968 Avena article is a review Comment link
Evolutionary and neuropsychological perspectives on addictive behaviors and addictive substances: relevance to the “food addiction” construct
Davis, C. (2014). Evolutionary and neuropsychological perspectives on addictive behaviors and addictive substances: relevance to the “food addiction” construct. Subst Abuse Rehabil, 5, 129137. https://doi.org/10.2147/SAR.S56835 Review 24625542953f5d4c668c160b5579a62f .pdf
Food Addiction: an evolving nonlinear science
Shriner, R., & Gold, M. (2014). Food Addiction: an evolving nonlinear science. Nutrients, 6(11), 5370-5391. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6115370 Supporters of Food Addiction science, however, address this argument in part by pointing out that many patients who identify themselves as Food Addicts do not necessarily like the foods they abuse, especially during their bingeing episodes. In other words, they may report less hedonic or liking valences toward food and more of a desire to avoid negative feelings or not wanting to feel bad when they are deprived access to their favorite foods of abuse along the lines outlined by Berridge [44] and Koob [41]. It has been our experience in the Living with Food Program at the University of Florida that many of our patients disliked the very foods they tended to abuse, but felt compelled to continue to abuse them. In an attempt to account for this phenomenon the Tripartite Model includes the designation of addiction, instead of confining this level to the simple designation of hedonia, even though such addiction may involve at least initially hedonic drivers, again, as described by Berridge and Koob. shriner2014 .pdf
The prevalence of food addiction as assessed by the Yale Food Addiction Scale: a systematic review
Pursey, K. M., Stanwell, P., Gearhardt, A. N., Collins, C. E., & Burrows, T. L. (2014a). The prevalence of food addiction as assessed by the Yale Food Addiction Scale: a systematic review. Nutrients, 6(10), 4552-4590. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6104552 Review Review link
Food and addiction among an aging population
Murray, S., Kroll, C., & Avena, N. M. (2015). Food and addiction among the ageing population. Ageing Res Rev, 20, 79-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/i.arr.2014.10.002 In light of the current obesity epidemic and predicted increases in the size of the elderly population, research efforts aimed at investigating the potential relevance of the Food Addiction construct in this age group may be worthwhile. murray2015 .pdf
Food Addiction in the light of DSM-5
Meule, A., & Gearhardt, A. N. (2014). Food Addiction in the light of DSM-5. Nutrients, 6(9), 36533671. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6093653 Research on the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for substance dependence shows they can be translated to eating behavior and that many individuals with obesity and/or BED fulfill those criteria based on self-report measures such as the YFAS. With regard to the newly added criteria in DSM-5, one study shows that three out of four symptoms may be less relevant in the context of food and eating. However, this was a small-sized qualitative study based on the themes that participants spontaneously mentioned during a semi-structured interview. As we have outlined above, all of the new symptoms can conceivably be applied to eating. Thus, future studies using standardized measures such as a revised YFAS are necessary for appropriately evaluating the relevance of the new SUD criteria for Food Addiction. Even if it turns out that the new symptoms, except craving, do not occur in the context of food and eating, it may still be questioned if this would disprove the existence of Food Addiction. As can be seen in Table 1, the diagnostic criteria as outlined in the DSM-5 do not apply to each substance to the same extent. Specifically, there are SUDs that do not cover the full range of symptoms (caffeine, hallucinogens, inhalants) or do not include intoxication (tobacco). In addition to this, the DSM criteria in general have been criticized for being rather inappropriate for tobacco [94]. Also, the DSM is criticized for its lack of focus on underlying mechanisms, which is a central component of the newly proposed RDoC system. Thus, a major test of the food addiction hypothesis will be to not only focus on the signs and symptoms linking addiction and problematic eating behavior, but also to examine the similarities and differences in the underpinnings of these conditions. meule2014 .pdf