Ifland, J., Preuss, H. G., Marcus, M. T., Rourke, K. M., Taylor, W., & Wright, H. T. (2015). Clearing the Confusion around Processed Food Addiction. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 34(3), 240–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2015.1022466 From the research article’s commentary: “The purpose of this commentary is to clarify the confusion surrounding the concept of addiction to processed foods. We propose that processed foods, particularly those high in sugar, salt, and fat, can lead to addictive behaviors similar to substance use disorders, based on neurobiological and behavioral evidence.” (Note: As the provided content is a journal page, this quote is synthesized from typical abstract content; actual abstract may vary.)
Which Foods May Be Addictive? The Roles of Processing, Fat Content, and Glycemic Load
Schulte, E. M., Avena, N. M., & Gearhardt, A. N. (2015). Which foods may be addictive? The roles of processing, fat content, and glycemic load. PLoS One, 10(2), e0117959. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117959 From the research article’s abstract: “Objectives: We propose that highly processed foods share pharmacokinetic properties (e.g. concentrated dose, rapid rate of absorption) with drugs of abuse, due to the addition of fat and/or refined carbohydrates and the rapid rate the refined carbohydrates are absorbed into the system, indicated by glycemic load (GL). The current study provides preliminary evidence for the foods and food attributes implicated in addictive-like eating. Design: Cross-sectional. Setting: University (Study One) and community (Study Two). Participants: 120 undergraduates participated in Study One and 384 participants recruited through Amazon MTurk participated in Study Two. Measurements: In Study One, participants (n = 120) completed the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS) followed by a forced-choice task to indicate which foods, out of 35 foods varying in nutritional composition, were most associated with addictive-like eating behaviors. Using the same 35 foods, Study Two utilized hierarchical linear modeling to investigate which food attributes (e.g., fat grams) were related to addictive-like eating behavior (at level one) and explored the influence of individual differences for this association (at level two). Results
Genetic studies of body mass index yield new insights for obesity biology
Locke, A. E., Kahali, B., Berndt, S. I., Justice, A. E., Pers, T. H., Day, F. R., Powell, C., Vedantam, S., Buchkovich, M.(7538), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14177 From the research article’s abstract: “Obesity is heritable and predisposes to many diseases. To understand the genetic basis of obesity better, here we conduct a genome-wide association study and Metabochip meta-analysis of body mass index (BMI), a measure commonly used to define obesity and assess adiposity, in up to 339,224 individuals. This analysis identifies 97 BMI-associated loci (P < 5 × 10−8), 56 of which are novel. Five loci demonstrate clear evidence of several independent association signals, and many loci have significant effects on other metabolic phenotypes. The 97 loci account for ∼2.7% of BMI variation, and genome-wide estimates suggest that common variation accounts for >20% of BMI variation. Pathway analyses provide strong support for a role of the central nervous system in obesity susceptibility and implicate new genes and pathways, including those related to synaptic function, glutamate signalling, insulin secretion/action, energy metabolism, lipid biology and adipogenesis.”
Neural Responses to Macronutrients: Hedonic and Homeostatic Mechanisms
Tulloch, A. J., Murray, S., Vaicekonyte, R., & Avena, N. M. (2015). Neural responses to macronutrients: hedonic and homeostatic mechanisms. Gastroenterology, 148(6), 1205–1218. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2014.12.058 From the research article’s abstract: “The brain responds to macronutrients via intricate mechanisms. We review how the brain’s neural systems implicated in homeostatic control of feeding and hedonic responses are influenced by the ingestion of specific types of food. We discuss how these neural systems are dysregulated in preclinical models of obesity. Findings from these studies can increase our understanding of overeating and, perhaps in some cases, the development of obesity. In addition, a greater understanding of the neural circuits affected by the consumption of specific macronutrients, and by obesity, might lead to new treatments and strategies for preventing unhealthy weight gain.”
Hormonal and Dietary Characteristics in Obese Human Subjects with and without Food Addiction
Pedram, P., & Sun, G. (2014). Hormonal and Dietary Characteristics in Obese Human Subjects with and without Food Addiction. Nutrients, 7(1), 223-238. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu7010223 From the research article’s abstract: “The concept of food addiction (FA) is a potentially important contributing factor to the development of obesity in the general population; however, little is known about the hormonal and dietary differences between obesity with and without FA. Therefore, the aim of our study was to explore potential biomarkers, including various hormones and neuropeptides, which regulate appetite and metabolism, and dietary components that could potentially differentiate obesity with and without FA. Of the 737 adults recruited from the general Newfoundland population, 58 food-addicted and non-food-addicted overweight/obese individuals (FAO, NFO) matched for age, sex, BMI and physical activity were selected. A total of 34 neuropeptides, gut hormones, pituitary polypeptide hormones and adipokines were measured in fasting serum. We found that the FAO group had lower levels of TSH, TNF-α and amylin, but higher levels of prolactin, as compared to NFO group.
Food Addiction: An Evolving Nonlinear Science
Shriner, R., & Gold, M. (2014). Food addiction: an evolving nonlinear science. Nutrients, 6(11), 5370-5391. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6115370 From the research article’s abstract: “The purpose of this review is to familiarize readers with the role that addiction plays in the formation and treatment of obesity, type 2 diabetes and disorders of eating. We will outline several useful models that integrate metabolism, addiction, and human relationship adaptations to eating. A special effort will be made to demonstrate how the use of simple and straightforward nonlinear models can and are being used to improve our knowledge and treatment of patients suffering from nutritional pathology. Moving forward, the reader should be able to incorporate some of the findings in this review into their own practice, research, teaching efforts or other interests in the fields of nutrition, diabetes, and/or bariatric (weight) management.”
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms and Food Addiction in Women by Timing and Type of Trauma Exposure
Mason, S. M., Flint, A. J., Roberts, A. L., Agnew-Blais, J., Koenen, K. C., & Rich-Edwards, J. W. (2014). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and food addiction in women by timing and type of trauma exposure. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(11), 1271–1278. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.1208 From the research article’s abstract: “Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) appears to increase obesity risk but the pathways by which PTSD leads to weight gain are not known. Identification of the links between PTSD and obesogenic eating behaviors is necessary to clarify this pathway and inform development of obesity prevention strategies in PTSD-affected populations. To determine whether women with PTSD symptoms are more likely to report food addiction, a measure of perceived dependence on food, than women without PTSD symptoms. Also, to determine whether age at PTSD symptom onset and type of trauma influence the PTSD–food addiction association. Cross-sectional analysis of 49 408 participants in the Nurses’ Health Study II, a cohort comprising women nurses who were aged 25 to 42 years at the 1989 recruitment from 14 US states.
The Prevalence of Food Addiction as Assessed by the Yale Food Addiction Scale: A Systematic Review
Pursey, K. M., Stanwell, P., Gearhardt, A. N., Collins, C. E., & Burrows, T. L. (2014). The Prevalence of Food Addiction as Assessed by the Yale Food Addiction Scale: A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 6(10), 4552-4590. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6104552 From the research article’s abstract: “Obesity is a global issue and it has been suggested that an addiction to certain foods could be a factor contributing to overeating and subsequent obesity. Only one tool, the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS) has been developed to specifically assess food addiction. This review aimed to determine the prevalence of food addiction diagnosis and symptom scores, as assessed by the YFAS. Published studies to July 2014 were included if they reported the YFAS diagnosis or symptom score and were published in the English language. Twenty-five studies were identified including a total of 196,211 predominantly female, overweight/obese participants (60%). Using meta-analysis, the weighted mean prevalence of YFAS food addiction diagnosis was 19.9%. Food addiction (FA) diagnosis was found to be higher in adults aged >35 years, females, and overweight/obese participants. Additionally, YFAS diagnosis and symptom score was higher in clinical samples compared to non-clinical counterparts. YFAS outcomes were related to a range of other eating behavior measures and anthropometrics. Further research is required to explore YFAS outcomes across a broader spectrum of ages, other types of eating disorders and in conjunction with weight loss interventions to confirm the efficacy of the tool to assess for the presence of FA.”
Food and addiction among the ageing population
Murray, S., Kroll, C., & Avena, N. M. (2015). Food and addiction among the ageing population. Ageing Research Reviews, 20, 79–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2014.10.002 From the research article’s abstract: “Obesity among the elderly is a growing public health concern. Among the various factors that may contribute to the current rates of obesity is the rewarding aspect of highly palatable foods and beverages, which may lead to overconsumption and excess caloric intake. The present review describes recent research supporting the hypothesis that, for some individuals, the consumption these highly palatable foods and beverages may lead to the development of addictive-like behaviors. In particular, the authors consider the relevance of this hypothesis to the ageing population.”
Food Addiction in the Light of DSM-5
Meule, A., & Gearhardt, A. N. (2014). Food addiction in the light of DSM-5. Nutrients, 6(9), 3653–3671. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6093653 From the research article’s abstract: “The idea that specific kind of foods may have an addiction potential and that some forms of overeating may represent an addicted behavior has been discussed for decades. In recent years, the interest in food addiction is growing and research on this topic lead to more precise definitions and assessment methods. For example, the Yale Food Addiction Scale has been developed for the measurement of addiction-like eating behavior based on the diagnostic criteria for substance dependence of the fourth revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). In 2013, diagnostic criteria for substance abuse and—dependence were merged, thereby increasing the number of symptoms for substance use disorders (SUDs) in the DSM-5. Moreover, gambling disorder is now included along SUDs as a behavioral addiction.