Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Tomasi, D., Telang, F., & Baler, R. (2010). Addiction: decreased reward sensitivity and increased expectation sensitivity conspire to overwhelm the brain’s control circuit. BioEssays : news and reviews in molecular, cellular and developmental biology, 32(9), 748–755. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.201000042 From the research article’s abstract: “Based on brain imaging findings, we present a model according to which addiction emerges as an imbalance in the information processing and integration among various brain circuits and functions. The dysfunctions reflect (a) decreased sensitivity of reward circuits, (b) enhanced sensitivity of memory circuits to conditioned expectations to drugs and drug cues, stress reactivity, and (c) negative mood, and a weakened control circuit. Although initial experimentation with a drug of abuse is largely a voluntary behavior, continued drug use can eventually impair neuronal circuits in the brain that are involved in free will, turning drug use into an automatic compulsive behavior. The ability of addictive drugs to co-opt neurotransmitter signals between neurons (including dopamine, glutamate, and GABA) modifies the function of different neuronal circuits, which begin to falter at different stages of an addiction trajectory.
Food Addiction
An Examination of the Diagnostic Criteria for Dependence Gearhardt, A. N., Corbin, W. R., & Brownell, K. D. (2009). Food addiction: examination of diagnostic criteria. J Addict Med, 3(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0b013e318193c993 From the seminal study’s abstract: “Much as classic drugs of abuse ‘hijack’ the brain, accumulation evidence with food suggests a similar impact, specifically loss of control and unable to abstain in the face of negative consequences.”
Refined food addiction: A classic substance use disorder
Ifland, J. R., Preuss, H. G., Marcus, M. T., Rourke, K. M., Taylor, W. C., Burau, K., Jacobs, W. S., Kadish, W., & Manso, G. (2009). Refined food addiction: a classic substance use disorder. Medical hypotheses, 72(5), 518–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2008.11.035 From the literature review’s hypothesis: “Overeating can be described as an addiction to refined foods that conforms to the DSM-IV criteria for substance use disorders.”
Refined food addiction: A classic substance use disorder
Ifland, J. R., Preuss, H. G., Marcus, M. T., Rourke, K. M., Taylor, W. C., Burau, K., Jacobs, W. S., Kadish, W., & Manso, G. (2009). Refined food addiction: a classic substance use disorder. Medical Hypotheses, 72(5), 518–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2008.11.035 From the research article’s abstract: “Overeating in industrial societies is a significant problem, linked to an increasing incidence of overweight and obesity, and the resultant adverse health consequences. We advance the hypothesis that a possible explanation for overeating is that processed foods with high concentrations of sugar and other refined sweeteners, refined carbohydrates, fat, salt, and caffeine are addictive substances. Therefore, many people lose control over their ability to regulate their consumption of such foods. The loss of control over these foods could account for the global epidemic of obesity and other metabolic disorders. We assert that overeating can be described as an addiction to refined foods that conforms to the DSM-IV criteria for substance use disorders. To examine the hypothesis, we relied on experience with self-identified refined foods addicts, as well as critical reading of the literature on obesity, eating behavior, and drug addiction. Reports by self-identified food addicts illustrate behaviors that conform to the 7 DSM-IV criteria for substance use disorders. The literature also supports use of the DSM-IV criteria to describe overeating as a substance use disorder. The observational and empirical data strengthen the hypothesis that certain refined food consumption behaviors meet the criteria for substance use disorders, not unlike tobacco and alcohol. This hypothesis could lead to a new diagnostic category, as well as therapeutic approaches to changing overeating behaviors.”
Food Addiction in Humans
Pelchat, M. L. (2009). Food addiction in humans. The Journal of Nutrition, 139(3), 620-622. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.108.097816 From the research article’s abstract: “Most of the evidence for or against food addiction in humans focuses on similarities between food craving and drug craving. There are numerous parallels in neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, and learning. Indeed, brain mechanisms for craving probably evolved to promote seeking of natural rewards and are taken over by drugs of abuse. Healthy, normal weight individuals, by definition, do not suffer from food addiction; however, overweight and obese individuals could meet clinical criteria. Palatable foods are not responsible for the obesity problem, because even nonpalatable foods can come to be desired and potentially overconsumed. It may be the way in which foods are consumed (e.g. alternating access and restriction) rather than their sensory properties that leads to an addictive eating pattern.”
Symposium Overview—Food Addiction: Fact or Fiction?, ,
Corwin, R. L., & Grigson, P. S. (2009). Symposium overview–Food addiction: fact or fiction? J Nutr, 139(3), 617–619. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.108.097691 From the symposium article’s abstract: “We propose that specific foods, especially those that are rich in fat and/or sugar, are capable of promoting “addiction”-like behavior and neuronal change under certain conditions.”
Preliminary validation of the Yale Food Addiction Scale
Gearhardt, A. N., Corbin, W. R., & Brownell, K. D. (2009). Preliminary validation of the Yale Food Addiction Scale. Appetite, 52(2), 430–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2008.12.003 From the validation study’s abstract: “The YFAS predicted binge-eating behavior above and beyond existing measures, demonstrating incremental validity and a sound tool for identifying patterns similar to classic addiction.”
Low dopamine striatal D2 receptors are associated with prefrontal metabolism in obese subjects: Possible contributing factors
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Telang, F., Fowler, J. S., Thanos, P. K., Logan, J., Alexoff, D., Ding, Y. S., Wong, C., Ma, Y., & Pradhan, K. (2008). Low dopamine striatal D2 receptors are associated with prefrontal metabolism in obese subjects: possible contributing factors. NeuroImage, 42(4), 1537–1543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.06.002 From the research article’s abstract: “Dopamine’s role in inhibitory control is well recognized and its disruption may contribute to behavioral disorders of discontrol such as obesity. However, the mechanism by which impaired dopamine neurotransmission interferes with inhibitory control is poorly understood. We had previously documented a reduction in dopamine D2 receptors in morbidly obese subjects. To assess if the reductions in dopamine D2 receptors were associated with activity in prefrontal brain regions implicated in inhibitory control we assessed the relationship between dopamine D2 receptor availability in striatum with brain glucose metabolism (marker of brain function) in ten morbidly obese subjects (BMI > 40 kg/m2) and compared it to that in twelve non-obese controls. PET was used with [11C]raclopride to assess D2 receptors and with [18F]FDG to assess regional brain glucose metabolism.
Solution-Focused Group Therapy for Level 1 Substance Abuser
Smock, S. A., Trepper, T. S., Wetchler, J. L., McCollum, E. E., Ray, R., & Pierce, K. (2008). Solution-focused group therapy for level 1 substance abusers. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 34(1), 107-120. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2008.00056.x From the research article’s abstract: “The present study compared solution-focused group therapy (SFGT) with a traditional problem-focused treatment for level 1 substance abusers. Outcome research on the effectiveness of solution-focused group therapy is minimal, especially in treating substance abusers. In the present study, clients were measured before and after treatment to determine therapeutic effectiveness. Clients in the solution-focused group significantly improved on both the Beck Depression Inventory and the Outcome Questionnaire. The clients in the comparison group did not improve significantly on either measure. Therapist skill level and adherence to theoretical models were measured in each group to reduce confounding variables.”
New Approaches for Creating the Therapeutic Alliance: Solution-Focused Interviewing, Motivational Interviewing, and the Medication Interest Model
Cheng, M. K. (2007). New approaches for creating the therapeutic alliance: solution-focused interviewing, motivational interviewing, and the medication interest model. Psychiatr Clin North Am, 30(2), 157-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2007.01.003 From the literature review’s abstract: “This article reviews the theory behind the therapeutic alliance and, more importantly, explores three new approaches to establishing it effectively: (1) solution-focused interviewing, (2) motivational interviewing, and (3) the medication interest model designed to improve medication adherence.”